An encoding process that is not equipped with sufficient attention. Thus, only a superficial encoding process occurs. This type of memory failure occurs when we fail to pay sufficient attention to the information we want to remember.
the drive to excel, succeed, or accomplish goals. This type of motivation is often associated with high levels of effort, persistence, and self-discipline.
the tendency to attribute our own behaviour to situational factors while attributing others' behaviour to dispositional factors.
Conditions characterised by two symptom clusters - inattention and hyperactivity and impulsivity. These must be shown for at least 6 months before the age of 7.
the tendency to overestimate how events in the future will affect one's feelings. It involves making decisions according to what is likely to make us happy.
a disturbance of emotional balance, such as severe depression or the abrupt change from depression to mania.
A fear of public places or open, large spaces without a means of escape.
the process of recalling from memory solutions that have proved successful in the past.
the tendency in judgement processes to rely on the first information one encounter or on information that comes to mind most quickly.
the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.
the tendency to conform to the beliefs or behaviours of a group, often without critically evaluating them.
A psychological approach that emphasises the study of observable behaviours rather than internal mental processes or subjective experiences.
People tend to judge as valid those inferences for which they can construct a reasonable model in their world of experience and to reject as invalid inferences for which a corresponding model construction is not possible (Janis & Frick, 1943).
the discovery of benefits in something that is negative in itself, or the ability of people to find positive aspects in a negative life experience.
a mental health disorder characterised by episodes of mania (periods of elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, increased energy or activity, decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts, impulsivity) and episodes of depression (as described in MDD).
A memory error whereby one is temporarily unable to remember something. This is usually a situational condition. Here we temporarily cannot retrieve information despite our best efforts.
A mental disorder characterised by a preoccupation with perceived flaws in one's physical appearance, which leads to significant distress and impairment in daily functioning.
a mental health (personality) disorder characterised by intense and unstable emotions, impulsive behaviour, unstable relationships, distorted self-image, and chronic feelings of emptiness or boredom. It is also associated with a heightened risk for self-harm and suicidal behaviour.
The ability of the brain to change and adapt throughout life, particularly in response to new experiences and environmental stimuli.
An eating disorder characterised by binge eating (consuming a large amount of food in a short period of time) followed by purging (attempting to rid the body of the calories consumed through vomiting, laxative use, or excessive exercise).
This includes all brain and spinal cord neurons. The CNS correlates with the underlying processing of perception and identifying stimuli from our environment or body. Its most important tasks are integrating and coordinating all body functions, processing all incoming information, sending commands to different body regions, and receiving neuronal information.
our body is bound to a time cycle (24-18 hour cycle); the circadian rhythm: Activity levels, metabolism, heart rate, body temperature and hormonal activity increase or decrease according to our internal clock. Mostly, these activities peak during the day and decline to their lowest levels while we sleep at night.
Cognition is any mental activity used to represent and process knowledge, such as thinking, remembering, perceiving and using language. Cognition is a general term for all forms of knowledge and thinking.
a state of psychological discomfort or tension that arises when a person holds two or more conflicting beliefs or values or experiences a conflict between their beliefs and behaviour. This discomfort motivates people to resolve the conflict by changing their beliefs or behaviour to be more consistent with each other.
refer to how one manipulates mental content - so that one can interpret the world around them and find solutions to cope with the demands of life.
In these cultures, the group is in the foreground. Much emphasis is placed on community, solidarity and family. The community's interests are placed above individual interests, and decisions are often made by consensus. Examples are China, Korea and Japan.
means that one mental disorder often co-occurs with another so that symptoms overlap and syndromes need to be distinguished from each other.
Here, meditation is practised through the focus on a particular thing in the environment or oneself (image, object, breathing or verbal utterance, linguistic utterance). Individuals concentrate on breathing, and its regulation or certain postures are adopted (yoga postures), external stimuli are minimised, and certain mental images are generated.
The mental representations for certain categories (e.g. dogs) we build up are called concepts. Concepts are also building blocks of memory hierarchies and more complex mental structures. We form these to categorise and organise our experiences.
the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.
a mental state in which attention is directed inward to desires, memories, and expectations, which can stimulate creativity and problem-solving. We spend about 30% of our time daydreaming. Daydreaming is healthy and is used to visualise, prepare for events, stimulate creativity and gain aha experiences.
the process of choosing between alternatives- selecting certain alternatives and rejecting other possibilities.
mental strategies that the ego uses to protect itself from daily conflicts between different impulses, as described by Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic theory of personality.
a state in which individuality (i.e. self-perception), self-awareness and attention to personal norms and standards are reduced. The identity with a group overrides individuality. This can lead to a mob mentality.
Conditions characterised by feelings of sadness, emptiness, or irritability, along with physical symptoms and cognitive experiences.
The unjust or prejudicial treatment of individuals based on their membership in a particular group.
Memory distortions are changes in memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes. These are changes that can occur in our memories as a result of our current beliefs and attitudes.
a state of imbalance. The pattern of an organism's response to stimulus events that disrupt its balance and severely stress or exceed its ability to cope with influences. Stress can be acute or chronic.
the ability to produce a range of unusual solutions to a problem.
psychological states that, by producing arousal, motivate an organism to satisfy a particular need.
an immediate, specific positive or negative reaction to events in the environment or one's own thoughts. Emotions have a physiological, cognitive (appraisal of the situation), behavioural (behaviour) and feeling component (subjective experience of emotion). Emotion is a complex pattern of physical and mental changes, such as physiological arousal, feelings, cognitive processes and behavioural responses in response to a situation that has been perceived as personally significant.
Emotion regulation refers to the process by which individuals can influence the intensity and duration of their emotional experiences. This includes strategies such as distraction and reappraisal, which can help individuals manage negative emotions.
People with high emotional intelligence recognise emotional experiences in themselves and others and respond to these emotions in productive ways. Emotional intelligence comprises the following four main components according to Mayer et al. (2008a, 2008b) 1) the ability to perceive, appraise and express emotions accurately and appropriately, 2) the ability to use emotions to support thought processes, 3) the ability to understand and analyse emotions and use emotional knowledge effectively, 4) the ability to regulate one's emotions to promote emotional as well as intellectual growth.
the tendency to place a higher value on something we own, compared to the same item that we do not own.
states that employees are motivated to maintain fair or equitable relationships with other relevant people. They remember their contributions (what they have brought to the job and have achieved) and their results (what they have received from the job) and compare them with the contributions and results of their colleagues.
states that individuals are motivated when they believe their effort and performance will lead to desired outcomes.
motivation that comes from external sources, such as rewards, recognition, or punishment.
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs, values, and attitudes.
the tendency to underestimate the extent to which others share our uncommon or unique characteristics or experiences.
a model that identifies five broad dimensions of personality: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience.
state in which we perform movements and actions automatically and do not think about them (e.g. through long-lasting, constant sport, ritualised praying or dancing). A state of deep engagement and concentration, often accompanied by a feeling of joy and contentment. The term was first coined by psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.
the influence of how a problem or decision is presented, which can affect how people perceive and respond to it.
the tendency in decision-making to give extra weight to the potential losses or gains of at least one alternative.
a state that arises when people are prevented from achieving a desired goal.
when one associates an object so strongly with its actual function that one cannot even think of using it in any other way.
the tendency to view objects or concepts in a fixed, limited way and to overlook their potential alternative uses or functions.
the tendency to overemphasise dispositional (internal) explanations for others' behaviour while underemphasising situational (external) explanations.
As a psychological phenomenon, this refers to learned gender-related and culturally established behaviours and attitudes. The concept of masculinity and femininity is based on these.
These develop already at the age of 5 to 7. They are subjective ideas and concepts of trait characteristics coupled with different probabilities of occurrence in the gender groups. A systematic relationship between individual gender role stereotypes, behaviour and interests can be assumed.
a mental health disorder characterised by excessive and persistent worry and anxiety about a variety of everyday events or activities, often without any specific cause or trigger.
the propensity and willingness to engage in acts that promote the well-being of younger generations to ensure the species' long-term survival.
a school of psychology that emphasises the importance of holistic processing and perception rather than focusing solely on individual elements.
the tendency for group discussion to lead to more extreme opinions and attitudes than those held by individual group members prior to the discussion.
the tendency of groups to make poor decisions when the group is under pressure, faces external threats and is influenced by biases.
the tendency for group members to prioritise group harmony and consensus over critical evaluation or independent thinking.
The tendency for physically attractive people to be attributed positive personality traits. This effect is more common in individualistic cultures.
simple rules we have learned throughout our lives. They are mental shortcuts, rules of thumb, and informal guidelines that reduce the number of thought processes required to make a decision.
the tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected the outcome of the event.
An altered state of consciousness in which we can change our perception, memory, motivation and self-control through suggestion. Hypnosis can be used to treat phobias, addiction, trauma and pain relief.
the tendency to overestimate one's own abilities and qualities in relation to others.
external objects or external goals that can motivate behaviour in addition to universal internal sources of motivation.
emphasise the importance of the individual and their personal freedoms and rights. There is less emphasis on close family ties, with personal success and independence often seen as desirable.
the conscious effort to influence or change the attitudes of others.
The tendency where even with minimal evidence of group identity, people begin to favour members of their own group over outgroup members (Nelson, 2006).
If people do not sleep long enough or well enough, they suffer from insomnia. Characteristics of chronic sleep deprivation are the inability to fall asleep quickly, waking up frequently during the night or waking up very early in the morning.
pre-programmed (not learned) behavioural tendencies that are essential for survival.
Intelligence is a very general mental ability that includes, among other things, the ability to reason, plan, problem-solve, think abstractly, understand complex ideas, comprehend quickly and learn from experience (Gottfredson, 1997).
IQ is a numerical, standardised measure of intelligence that compares an individual's performance to a reference group. It is calculated by dividing an individual's intelligence age by their life age and multiplying by 100. The Wechsler intelligence scale is commonly used to measure IQ.
the competition of memory contents. In proactive interference, information that has already been learned inhibits the relearning of other information. In reactive interference, new information blocks the retrieval of old information.
the process by which we form opinions, reach conclusions, and critically evaluate events and people.
the tendency to believe that the world is fair and that people generally get what they deserve.
a person's belief about the degree of control they have over their own life and experiences. Individuals with an internal locus of control believe that they have control over their own lives, while those with an external locus of control believe that external factors such as luck, chance, or the actions of others have a greater influence.
Long-term memory is the repository of all experiences, events, information, emotions, skills, words, categories, rules and judgements acquired over time. A person's long-term memory determines their knowledge of the world and of themselves.
a mental health disorder characterised by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, worthlessness, and/or guilt, along with loss of interest or pleasure in activities, changes in appetite and sleep patterns, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and suicidal thoughts or behaviours.
an emotional state opposite to depression, characterised by extremely elevated mood and activity levels.
Meditation is a type of self-hypnosis, a form of altering consciousness to increase self-awareness and well-being through a state of deep calm. There are different kinds of meditations, like mindfulness meditations and concentrative meditations.
relies on the processing of information. Memory enables us to store and retrieve information. A distinction is made between conscious and unconscious memory content, both of which influence experience and behaviour.
A mental default refers to a tendentious way of thinking or attitude that a person has developed based on their experiences, beliefs, and perceptions. A mental bias can influence how a person perceives, interprets, and processes information.
a condition characterised by impairments in emotions, behaviour or thought processes that lead to personal distress or block a person's ability to achieve important goals.
Acquired mental structures that represent structures in the environment. As humans, we create internal representations of external objects, events, and concepts.
a phenomenon whereby the repeated perception of something initially judged neutrally leads to a positive evaluation.
Here, people learn to let thoughts and memories come and go without reacting to them. Mindfulness meditation is the basis for mindfulness-based stress reduction. According to studies, regular meditation practice may slow the loss of neurons that often accompanies ageing.
A memory distortion in which the time, place, people, and circumstances associated with a memory are misremembered. This is a type of memory error in which we attribute a memory to the wrong time, place, people, or circumstances.
a mental health disorder characterised by a grandiose sense of self-importance, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy for others. Symptoms can include arrogance, entitlement, exploitation of others, and envy.
the result of a state of deficiency that drives goal-directed behaviour to satisfy that need.
the tendency to pay more attention and give greater weight to negative experiences, information, or emotions compared to positive ones.
the tendency to underestimate the likelihood of unlikely events, such as rare or unexpected occurrences.
There are about 60 types of neurotransmitters in the brain. Unlike hormones, these only act in the brain. They can be either excitatory or inhibitory. The best-known neurotransmitters are adrenaline, noradrenaline (norepinephrine), dopamine, serotonin, GABA, acetylcholine, glutamate and endorphins.
the act of following direct commands from an authority figure, even if they conflict with one's personal beliefs or values.
a mental health disorder characterised by recurrent, unwanted, and intrusive thoughts, images, or urges (obsessions) that cause significant anxiety or distress and repetitive behaviours or mental acts (compulsions) that the person feels driven to perform in response to the obsessions.
A state of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and reduced personal engagement caused by prolonged work-related stress.
the tendency to believe that we are less likely to experience negative events and more likely to experience positive events than others.
the tendency to judge the quality of a decision based on the outcome rather than on the quality of the decision-making process itself.
The tendency to see members of outgroups as less diverse than members of one's own group.
the tendency to overestimate one's own abilities, knowledge, or expertise.
the tendency to judge members of one's own group better than members of the outgroup and to treat them preferentially.
a mental health disorder characterised by recurring panic attacks, which are sudden and intense episodes of fear or discomfort that peak within minutes. Symptoms can include palpitations, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, chest pain, nausea, and fear of losing control or dying.
includes all the neurons that connect the central nervous system to the body - all sensory and motor neurons. It is responsible for the body's response to processed stimuli. The PNS includes the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
The continual recurrence of unwanted memories. This is often the case in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Unwanted memories keep recurring and can be incredibly distressing in the context of trauma.
our interpretation of a given situation based on our general knowledge, experiences, memories, momentary needs, values, attitudes, and future goals.
a complex set of unique psychological traits that influence an individual's characteristics and behaviour patterns in many situations and over time.
Controversial concept referring to variations in an individual's personality across time and situations.
a pattern of thought, emotion and behaviour that is relatively constant over time and across situations.
The active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the delivery of a message.
irrational, constant fear of a specific object, activity, animal, situation. This fear is highly exaggerated, unfounded and prevents goal-directed behaviour.
the change in brain performance, structure and healing of neural damage. Plasticity in neuroscience refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt constantly. It is a process whereby the brain can change its structure, function and organisation to respond to environmental changes or repair damaged tissue.
Each time information is retrieved, there is a reconsolidation, i.e. a linking of old and new information. Thus, with each retrieval, the correctness of the information is checked, or stored contents are changed. It is the process of updating and strengthening memories rather than solely checking the correctness of the information.
the tendency to place a person or object in a category if that person or object resembles one's prototype of that category.
the psychological process that protects the individual from feeling extreme fear or guilt because the impulses, ideas and memories are unacceptable and/or because their expression would be dangerous. This is the most basic defence mechanism by which a person protects themselves from being overwhelmed by threatening impulses and ideas.
a personality trait that can also be trained. It is characterised by commitment and self-commitment, where challenges are seen as an opportunity for personal growth. There is also a sense of control over one's own life.
are conceptual frameworks or bundles of knowledge that relate to objects, people and situations. Schemas are "knowledge packages" that contain complex generalisations about our experience of the structure of the environment (e.g. schemas about Christmas parties, professors, kitchens, etc.). Schemata can be confirmed (assimilation) or changed (accommodation) by new information.
a chronic and severe mental health disorder that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. Symptoms can include delusions, hallucinations, disorganised thinking and speech, lack of motivation and emotional expression, and social withdrawal.
A specific type of memory representation that provides information about how events will unfold over time (Schank & Abelson, 1977). For e.g. what will happen when I enter university? These allow us to anticipate and navigate events that follow a particular sequence or pattern.
a dynamic mental structure that motivates, interprets, structures, mediates and regulates intra- and interpersonal behaviours and processes. Self-concept includes, among other things, memories of oneself; beliefs about personality traits, motives, values and abilities; the ideal self; positive and negative evaluations of the self (self-esteem) and beliefs about what others think about one (Chen et al., 2006).
a person's belief in their own ability to successfully perform a specific task or achieve a specific goal. Self-efficacy is closely related to motivation and can significantly impact a person's willingness to take on challenges and pursue goals.
A person's self-esteem is a generalised evaluation of the self. It can have a strong influence on thoughts, moods and behaviour. Low self-esteem is associated with aggression and antisocial behaviour.
predictions about future behaviour or event that change interactions at the behavioural level in such a way that they are actually able to produce the expected outcome.
the theory that people develop their attitudes and beliefs by observing their own behaviour and the context in which it occurs. This theory suggests that people may not have a fixed set of beliefs or attitudes but instead develop them over time based on their own experiences.
The self-concept contains schemas about the self, enabling one to structure information about oneself. These influence the way we process information about ourselves and the way we process information about other people. In this respect, we interpret the actions of others in terms of what we know and believe about ourselves.
the tendency to attribute successes to internal factors (such as personal skill or effort) and failures to external factors (such as bad luck or other people's actions).
innate basis for personality and, therefore, a general biologically based tendency towards certain feelings and behaviours. The child's temperament prepares the ground for later aspects of social development.
Cultural constructions of reality are ways in which most members of a particular group of people think about the world.
our interpretation of a given situation that is based on our general knowledge, experiences, memories of past experiences, momentary needs, values, attitudes and future goals.
the ability to perceive mental states (e.g., the mind of a person like knowledge, desires, thoughts, emotions) in oneself and others. It describes predicting the actions of others based on information about their intentions, goals, beliefs and convictions.
these are used to document the mental strategies and knowledge representations used in task completion. Strategies and knowledge representations that are used in the performance of tasks are discovered.
refers to the ability to consciously decide to act on one's desires or intentions. It is also called willpower, i.e. when one achieves the desired goals given existing motivation (i.e. behavioural intention).
memory resource used for reasoning and language comprehension tasks. A cognitive system that enables intelligent performance and cognitive functions such as reading and arithmetic. It helps maintain the psychological present, connects separate episodes into a coherent story, is used to maintain and update representations and helps follow the course of a conversation.
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